
@section Introduction

This chapter is under construction!

    

This chapter describes some of the internals of @command{vbcc}
 and tries to explain
what has to be done to write a code generator for @command{vbcc}.
However if someone wants to write one, I suggest to contact me first,
so that it can be integrated into the source tree.

You have to create a new directory for the new target named
@file{machines/<target-name>} and write the files @file{machine.c}, 
@file{machine.h}
and @file{machine.dt}. The compiler for this target will be called
@command{vbcc<target-name>} and can be built doing a
@command{make TARGET=<target-name> bin/vbcc<target-name>}.

From now on integer means any of @code{char, short, int, long, long long} or their
unsigned couterparts. Arithmetic means integer or @code{float} or 
@code{double} or @code{long double}.
Elementary type means arithmetic or pointer.

Note that this documentation may mention explicit values when introducing
symbolic constants. This is due to copying and pasting from the source
code. These values may not be up to date and in some cases can be overridden.
Therefore do never use the absolute values but rather the symbolic
representations.


@section Building vbcc

This section deals with the steps necessary to build the typical
@command{vbcc} executables from the sources.

@subsection Directory Structure

    The vbcc-directory contains the following important files and
    directories:
@table @file
@item    vbcc/
The main directory containing the compiler sources.

@item    vbcc/Makefile
The Makefile used to build @command{vbcc}.

@item    vbcc/frontend/
Directory containing the source to @command{vc}, the compiler driver.

@item    vbcc/machines/<target>/
Directory for the @code{<target>} backend.

@item    vbcc/machines/ucpp/
Directory containing the builtin preprocessor.

@item    vbcc/vsc/
Directory containing source to @command{vsc}, the instruction scheduler.

@item    vbcc/bin/
Directory the executables will be placed in.
@end table

    All compiling is done from the main directory.
    The frontend @command{vc}
 is not target-dependend and therefore only one version
    is created.

    Every available target has at least one subdirectory with its name in
    @file{vbcc/machines} and contains at least the files 
@file{machine.h}, @file{machine.c} and
    @file{machine.dt}. Target-specific object-files will also be stored in that
    directory.

    The executables will be placed in @file{vbcc/bin/}. The main compiler will
    be called @command{vbcc<target>}.


@subsection Adapting the Makefile

    Before building anything you have to insert correct values for
    @code{CC, NCC, LDFLAGS} and @code{NLDFLAGS} in the @file{Makefile}.

@table @code
    @item CC
       Here you have to insert a command that invokes an ANSI C
             compiler you want to use to build vbcc. It must support
             @option{-D}, @option{-I}, @option{-c} and @option{-o}
                 the same like e.g. @command{vc} or @command{gcc}.
             Additional options should also be inserted here. E.g. if you
             are compiling for the Amiga with @command{vbcc} you should add 
                @option{-DAMIGA}.

    @item LDFLAGS 
         Here you have to add options which are necessary for linking.
             E.g. some compilers need special libraries for floating-point.

    @item NCC
    @itemx NLDFLAGS
    These are similar to @code{CC} and @code{LDFLAGS} but they must always
    describe a native compiler, i.e. Programs compiled with @code{NCC/NLDFLAGS}
    must be executable on the host system. This is needed because during
    the build programs may have to be executed on the host.
@end table

    An example for the Amiga using @command{vbcc} would be:
@example
      CC = vc -DAMIGA -c99
      LDFLAGS = -lmieee
      NCC = $(CC)
      NLDFLAGS = $(LDFLAGS)
@end example

    An example for a typical Unix-installation would be:
@example
      CC = cc
      LDFLAGS = -lm
      NCC = $(CC)
      NLDFLAGS = $(LDFLAGS)
@end example

The following settings are probably necessary for Open/Free/Any BSD i386 systems:
@example
      CC = gcc -D_ANSI_SOURCE
      LDFLAGS = -lm
      NCC = $(CC)
      NLDFLAGS = $(LDFLAGS)
@end example


@subsection Building vc

Note to users of Open/Free/Any BSD i386 systems: You will probably have to use
GNU make instead of BSD make, i.e. in the following examples replace "make"
with "gmake".

    Type:
@example
      make bin/vc
@end example

@subsection Building vsc

    Type:
@example
      make TARGET=<target> bin/vsc<target>
@end example
    For example:
@example
      make TARGET=alpha bin/vscalpha
@end example

    Omit this step if there is no file @file{machines/<target>/schedule.c}.


@subsection Building vbcc

    Type:

@example
      make TARGET=<target> bin/vbcc<target>
@end example
For example:
@example
      make TARGET=alpha bin/vbccalpha
@end example

    During the build the program @command{dtgen} will be generated and executed on
    the host-system. First it will ask you whether you are building a
    cross-compiler.

    Answer @code{y} only if you are building a cross-compiler (i.e. a compiler
    which does not produce code for the same machine it it running on).

    Note that it does _not_ matter if you are cross-building a compiler,
    i.e. if you are running on system A and building a B->B compiler
    by using an A->B compiler then you can answer @code{n}.

    If you answered @code{y} you will be asked if your system/compiler offers
    certain datatypes. This refers to the compiler you described with
    CC in the Makefile.
    E.g. if @code{CC} is an A->B cross-compiler you have to answer the questions
    according to B.
    To each question answer @code{y} or @code{n} depending if such a datatype is
    available on that compiler. If you answered @code{y} you have to type in
    the name of that type on the compiler (e.g. @code{signed int},
    @code{unsigned char} etc.).
    If there are not enough datatypes available to build @command{vbcc}
    an error
    message will be printed and the build aborts.


@subsection Configuring

    Consult the @command{vbcc}-documentation for information on
    how to create the necessary config-files.


@subsection Building Cross-Compilers

    As there is often confusion when it comes to cross-building compilers
    or building cross-compilers, here is what has to be done to cross-build
    a B->C cross-compiler on system A with only a native A->A compiler
    available.

    This is done by first building an A->B compiler and then cross-building
    the B->C compiler using the A->B compiler.

    For the first step you use the A->A compiler for @code{CC} as well as
        @code{NCC}.
    Now you type:
@example
      make bin/vc
      make TARGET=B bin/vscB   # omit if there is no machines/B/schedule.c
      make TARGET=B bin/vbccB
@end example

    The questions about datatypes are answered according to A.
    Then you should write a @file{vc.config} for the @code{vbccB}
 cross-compiler.

    Now create a second directory containing all the sources to @command{vbcc}
 and
    set @code{CC/LDFLAGS} to @command{vc} using the config-file for vbccB and
        @code{NCC/NLDFLAGS}
    to the A->A compiler. Type:
@example
      make bin/vc
      make TARGET=C bin/vscC   # omit if there is no machines/C/schedule.c
      make TARGET=C bin/vbccC
@end example



@section The Intermediate Code

@command{vbcc} will generate intermediate code for every function and pass
this code to the code generator which has to convert it into the desired output.

In the future there may be a code generator generator which reads a machine
description file and generates a code generator from that, but it is not
clear whether this could simplify much without taking penalties in the
generated code.
Anyway, this would be a layer on top of the current interface to the code
generator, so that the interface described in this document would still be
valid and accessible.

@subsection General Format

The intermediate code is represented as a doubly linked list of quadruples
(I am calling them ICs from now on) consisting mainly of an operator, two
source operands and a target. They are represented like this:

@example

struct IC@{
    struct IC *prev;
    struct IC *next;
    int code;
    int typf;
    int typf2;
    [...]
    struct obj q1;
    struct obj q2;
    struct obj z;
    [...]
    struct ext_ic ext;  /* optional */
@};
@end example

The only members relevant to the code generator are
@code{prev, next, code, typf, typf2, q1, q2, z} and (optionally) @code{ext_ic}.

@code{prev} and @code{next} are pointers to the previous and next IC.
The first IC has @code{prev==0} and the last one has @code{next==0}.

@code{typf} and @code{typf2} are the type of the operands of this IC.
In most ICs all operands have the same type and therefore only @code{typf}
is used. However, some ICs have operands of different types (e.g.
converting an operand to another type or adding an integer to a pointer).
@code{typf2} is used in these cases.

Macros are provided which yield the type of an operand.
@code{q1typ(), q2typ()} and @code{ztyp()} return the type of the first source
operand, the second source operand and the destination, respectively.
They have to be passed a pointer to a valid IC as argument. The results are
undefined if the IC does not contain the specified operand (e.g. @code{q2typ()}
for an IC with only a single operand).

The standard types which are defined by default are:

@example
    #define CHAR 
    #define SHORT 
    #define INT 
    #define LONG 
    #define LLONG
    #define FLOAT 
    #define DOUBLE 
    #define LDOUBLE
    #define VOID 
    #define POINTER 
    #define ARRAY 
    #define STRUCT 
    #define UNION 
    #define ENUM          /*  not relevant for code generator     */
    #define FUNKT 
@end example

    and can be additionally or'ed by

@example
    #define UNSIGNED
    #define CONST
    #define VOLATILE
    #define UNCOMPLETE
@end example

    However, only @code{UNSIGNED} is of real importance for the code generator.
    @code{typf&NQ} yields the type without any qualifiers, @code{typf&NU}
    yields the type without any qualifiers but @code{UNSIGNED}.

It is possible for backends to define additional types. @xref{exttypes}
for documentation on how to extend the type system.

@node operands
@subsection Operands

@code{q1, q2} and @code{z} are the source1 (quelle1 in German), source2 and
target (ziel) operands, respectively.
If a result has to be computed, it always will be stored in the object @code{z}
and the objects @code{q1} and @code{q2} usually may not be destroyed during
this operation (unless they are aliased with the destination).

The objects are described by this structure:

@example

struct obj@{
    int flags;
    int reg;
    int dtyp;
    struct Var *v;
    struct AddressingMode *am;
    union atyps@{
        zchar vchar;
        zchar vuchar;
        zshort vshort;
        zushort vushort;
        zint vint;
        zuint vuint;
        zlong vlong;
        zulong vulong;
        zllong vllong;
        zullong vullong;
        zmax vmax;
        zumax vumax;
        zfloat vfloat;
        zdouble vdouble;
        zldouble vldouble;
    @} val;
@};

@end example

@code{flags} specifies the kind of object. It can be a combination of

@table @code

@item #define KONST 1
    The object is a constant. Its value is in the corresponding (to
        @code{typf} or @code{typf2})
    member of @code{val}.

@item #define VAR 2
    The object is a variable. The pointer to its @code{struct Var} is in 
    @code{v}. @code{val.vlong} vontains an offset that has to be added to it.
    Fur further details, @pxref{Variables}.

@item #define DREFOBJ 32
    The content of the location in memory the object points to is used.
        @code{dtyp} contains the type of the pointer. In systems with
        only one pointer type, this will always be @code{POINTER}.

@item #define REG 64
    The object is a register. @code{reg} contains its number.

@item #define VARADR 128
    The address of the object is to be used. Only together with static
    variables (i.e. @code{storage_class == STATIC} or @code{EXTERN}).

@end table

The possible combinations of these flags should be:

@itemize
        @item @code{0} (no object)
        @item @code{KONST}
        @item @code{KONST|DREFOBJ}
        @item @code{REG}
        @item @code{VAR}
        @item @code{VAR|REG}
        @item @code{REG|DREFOBJ}
        @item @code{KONST|DREFOBJ}
        @item @code{VAR|DREFOBJ}
        @item @code{VAR|REG|DREFOBJ}
        @item @code{VAR|VARADR}
@end itemize

Also some other bits which are not relevant to the code generator may be set.

Constants will usually be in @code{q2} if possible. One of the sources always
is not constant and the target is always an lvalue.
The types of the operands can be queried using the macros
@code{q1typ(), q2typ()} and @code{ztyp()}.
In most cases (i.e. when not explicitly stated) the type is an elementary type
(i.e. arithmetic or pointer).

@code{am} can be used to store information on special addressing modes.
This has to be handled by the by the code generator. However @code{am} has to be 0
or has to point to a @code{struct AddressingMode} that was allocated using @code{malloc()}
when the code generator returns. @code{struct AddressingMode} has to be defined
in @file{machine.h}.

@code{val} stores either the value of the object if it is a constant or an
offset if it is a variable.

@code{code} specifies the operation. Fur further details @pxref{operations}.



@node Variables
@subsection Variables

    A @code{struct Var} looks like:

@example

    struct Var@{
        int storage_class;
        [...]
        char *identifier;
        [...]
        zmax offset;
        struct Typ *vtyp;
        [...]
        char *vattr;
        unsigned long tattr;   /* optional */
    @};
@end example


    The relevant entries are:

@table @code
    @item identifier
        The name of the variable. Usually only of interest for variables
        with external-linkage.

    @item storage_class
        One of:
        @example
            #define AUTO 1
            #define REGISTER 2
            #define STATIC 3
            #define EXTERN  4
            #define TYPEDEF 5       /*  not relevant    */
        @end example
        The backend should use the macros @code{isauto(), isstatic()}
        and @code{isextern()} to check which category a variable falls into.

     @item offset
        Contains an offset relative to the beginning of the variable's
        storage. Used, for example, when accessing members of structures.

     @item vtyp
        The type of the variable (@pxref{compositetypes}).

     @item vattr
        A string with attributes used in the declaration of the variable.
        @xref{targetattributes} for further details.

     @item tattr
        Flags used when declaring the variable.
        @xref{targetattributes} for further details.
@end table

        If the variable is not assigned to a register (i.e. bit @code{REG}
        is not set in the flags of the corresponding @code{struct obj}) then
        the variable can be addressed in the following ways (with
        examples of 68k-code):

@table @code
        @item isauto(storage_class) != 0
            @code{offset} contains the offset inside the local-variables
            section. The code generator must decide how it's going to handle
            the activation record.
            If @code{offset < 0} then the variable is a function argument on
                the
            stack. In this case the offset in the parameter-area is
             @code{- (offset + maxalign)}.

            The code generator may have to calculate the actual offset
            to a stack- or frame-pointer from the value in @code{offset}.
@example
                offset + val.vlong(sp)
@end example
            Note that @code{storage_class == REGISTER} is equivalent to
                @code{AUTO} - whether
            the variable is actually assigned a register is specified by
            the bit @code{REG} in the @code{flags} of the @code{struct obj}.

        @item isextern(storage_class) != 0
            The variable can be addressed through its name in @code{identifier}.
@example
                val.vlong + '_'identifier
@end example

        @item isstatic(storage_class) != 0
            The variable can be addressed through a numbered label. The
            label number is stored in @code{offset}.
@example
                val.vlong+'l'offset
@end example
@end table

@node compositetypes
@subsection Composite Types

The C language offers types which are composed out of other types,
e.g. structures or arrays. Therefore, a C type can be an arbitrarily
complex structure. Usually the backend does not need to deal with
those structures. The ICs contain only the simple type flags, e.g.
@code{INT} or @code{STRUCT}, but not the members of a structure (instead
the size is given).

Most backends do not have to deal with complex types at all, but
there are some ways to access them, if needed (for example, they may be
needed when generating debug information). Therefore, this chapter
describes the representation of such full types.

Types are represented by the following structure:
@example
struct Typ @{
  int flags;
  struct Typ *next;
  struct struct_declaration *exact;
  zmax size;
  char *attr;
@};
@end example

@code{flags} is the simple type as it is generally used in the
backend. The meaning of the other members depends on @code{flags}.
@code{attr} is an attribute that can be added to the type using
the sytax @code{__attr("...")} (which is parsed like a type-qualifier,
e.g. @code{const}). If several attributes are specified
for a type, the strings will be concatenated, separated by semi-colons.

If the type is a pointer (@code{ISPOINTER(flags) != 0}), then @code{next}
will point to the type the pointer points to.

If the type is an array (@code{ISARRAY(flags) != 0}), then @code{size}
contains the number of elements and @code{next} points to a type structure
representing the type of each array element.

If the type is a structure (@code{ISSTRUCT(flags) != 0}), a union
(@code{ISUNION(flags) != 0}) or a function (@code{ISFUNC(flags) != 0}), 
then @code{exact}
is a pointer to a @code{struct_declaration} (which is also used to represent
unions and function prototypes) that looks like this:
@example
struct struct_declaration @{
  int count;
  int label;
  int typ;
  ...
  struct struct_list (*sl)[];
  char *identifier;
@};
@end example

@code{count} is the number of members, @code{label} can be used to store
a label when generating debug information. @code{typ} is either @code{STRUCT},
@code{UNION} or @code{FUNKT} to denote whether it applies to a structure,
union or function-prototype.

@code{identifier} is only available for struct- and union-tags.

@code{sl} points to an array of @code{struct struct_list}s which contain
information on each member/parameter:
@example
struct struct_list @{
  char *identifier;
  struct Typ *styp;
  zmax align;
  int bfoffset;
  int bfsize;
  int storage_class;
  int reg;
@};
@end example

@code{identifier} is the identifier of the member/parameter, if available.
@code{styp} denotes the full type, @code{align} the alignment in bytes
(only for struct/union), @code{bfoffset} and @code{bfsize} the size and
offset of bitfield-members, @code{storage_class} the storage class of
function parameters (may be @code{AUTO} or @code{REGISTER}) and @code{reg}
denotes the register a parameter is passed in.

Example: If @code{struct Typ *t} points to a structure-type, then the type
of the second structure member can be accessed through
@code{(*t->exact->sl)[1].styp}.

A prototyped function will have a last argument of type @code{VOID} unless
it is a function accepting a variable number of arguments. If a function
was declared without a prototype it will have no parameters, a function
declared with prototype accepting no arguments will have one parameter of
type @code{VOID}.

Also, in the case of a function type, the @code{next}-member of a
@code{struct Typ} points to the return type of the function.


@node operations
@subsection Operations

This section lists all the different operations allowed in the
intermediate code passed to the backend. It lists the symbolic name
of the @code{code} value (the value should not be used), a template
of the operands and a description. The description sometimes
contains internals (e.g. which types are stored in @code{typf} and
which in @code{typf2}), but they should not be used. Access them using
the macros provided (e.g. @code{q1typ,q2typ,ztyp}) whenever possible.


@table @code
@item #define ASSIGN 2

    Copy @code{q1} to @code{z}. @code{q1->z}.

    @code{q2.val.vmax} contains the size of the objects (this is
    necessary if it is an array or a struct). It should be accessed
    using the @code{opsize()}-macro.
    @code{typf} does not have to be an elementary type!

    The only case where @code{typf == ARRAY} should be in automatic initializations.

    It is also possible that @code{(typf&NQ) == CHAR} but the size is != 1. This is
    created for an inline memcpy/strcpy where the type is not known.

@item #define OR 16
@item #define XOR 17
@itemx #define AND 18

    Bitwise boolean operations. @code{q1,q2->z}.

    All operands are integers.

@item #define LSHIFT 25
@itemx #define RSHIFT 26

    Bit shifting. @code{q1,q2->z}.

 @code{'q2'} is the number of shifts.
    All operands are integers.

@item #define ADD 27
@item #define SUB 28
@item #define MULT 29
@itemx #define DIV 30

    Standard arithmetic operations. @code{q1,q2->z}.

    All operands are of arithmetic types (integers or floating point).

@item #define MOD 31

    Modulo (@code{%}). @code{q1,q2->z}.

    All operands are integers.

@item #define KOMPLEMENT 33

    Bitwise complement. @code{q1->z}.

    All operands are integers.

@item #define MINUS 38

    Unary minus. @code{q1->z}.

    All operands are of arithmetic types (integers or floating point).

@item #define ADDRESS 40

    Get the address of an object. @code{q1->z}.

    @code{z} is always a pointer and @code{q1} is always an auto variable.

@item #define CALL 42

    Call the function @code{q1}. @code{q1}.

    @code{q2.val.vmax} contains the number of bytes pushed on the stack as
    function arguments for this call (use the @code{pushedargsize()}-macro
    to access this size). Those may have to be popped from the
    stack after the function returns depending on the calling mechanism.

    A @code{CALL} IC has a member @code{arg_cnt} which contains the number
    of arguments to this function call. @code{arg_list[i]} (with @code{i}
    in the range 0...@code{arg_cnt-1}) contains the pointer to the
    IC passing the @code{i}-th argument.

@item #define CONVERT 50

    Convert one type to another. @code{q1->z}.

    @code{z} is always of the type @code{typf}, @code{q1} of type @code{typf2}.

    Conversions between floating point and pointers do not occur, neither 
    do conversions to and from structs, unions, arrays or void.

@item #define ALLOCREG 65

    Allocate a register. @code{q1}.

    From now on the register @code{q1.reg} is in use. No code has to be generated
    for this, but it is probably useful to keep track of the registers
    in use to know which registers are available for the code generator
    at a certain time and which registers are trashed by the function.

@item #define FREEREG 66

    Release a register. @code{q1}.

    From now on the register @code{q1.reg} is free.

    Also it means that the value currently stored in @code{q1.reg} is not used any
    more and provides a little bit of data flow information.
    Note however, if a @code{FREEREG} follows a branch, the value of the register
    may be used at the target of the branch.

@item #define COMPARE 77

    Compare and set condition codes. @code{q1,q2(->z)}.

    Compare the operands and set the condition code, so that
    @code{BEQ, BNE, BLT, BGE, BLE} or @code{BGT} works as desired.
    If @code{z.flags == 0} (this is always the case unless the backend sets
    @code{multiple_ccs} to 1 and @option{-no-multiple-ccs} is not used) 
    the condition codes will be evaluated only by an IC immediately
    following the @code{COMPARE}, i.e. the next instruction (except possible
    @code{FREEREG}s) will be a conditional branch.

    However, if a target supports several condition code registers and sets
    the global variable @code{multiple_ccs} to 1, @command{vbcc} might use those registers
    and perform certain optimizations. In this case @code{z} may be non-empty and the
    condition codes have to be stored in @code{z}.

    Note that even if @code{multiple_ccs} is set, a backend must nevertheless
    be able to deal with @code{z == 0}.

@item #define TEST 68

    Test @code{q1} against 0 and set condition codes. @code{q1(->z)}

    This is equivalent to @code{COMPARE q1,#0}
    but only the condition code for @code{BEQ} and @code{BNE} has to be set.

@item @code{#define LABEL 69}

    Generate a label. @code{typf} specifies the number of the label.

@item #define BEQ 70
@item #define BNE 71
@item #define BLT 72
@item #define BGE 73
@item #define BLE 74
@itemx #define BGT 75

    Branch on condition codes. (@code{q1}).

    @code{typf} specifies the label where program execution shall continue, if the
    condition code is true (otherwise continue with next statement).
    The condition codes mean equal, not equal, less than, greater or equal,
    less or equal and greater than.
    If @code{q1} is empty (@code{q1.flags == 0}), the codes set by the last @code{COMPARE}
    or @code{TEST} must be evaluated. Otherwise @code{q1} contains the condition codes.

    On some machines the type of operands of a comparison (e.g unsigned or
    signed) is encoded in the branch instructions rather than in the
    comparison instructions. In this case the code generator has to keep
    track of the type of the last comparison.

    Similarly, in some architectures, the compare and the branch can be
    combined.

@item #define BRA 76

    Branch always. @code{typf} specifies the label where program execution
    continues.

@item #define PUSH 78

    Push @code{q1} on the stack (for argument passing). @code{q1}.

    @code{q2.val.vmax} contains the size of the object (should be accessed
    using the @code{opsize()}-macro), @code{z.val.vmax}
    contains the size that has to be pushed (access it using the
    @code{pushsize()}-macro). These sizes may differ due to
    alignment issues.

    @code{q1} does not have to
    be an elementary type (see @code{ASSIGN}).
    Also, @code{q1} can be empty. This is used for ABIs which require
    stack-slots to be omitted.

    Depending on @code{ORDERED_PUSH} the @code{PUSH} ICs are generated
    starting with the first or the last arguments. The direction of
    the stack-growth can be chosen by the backend. Note that this is only
    used for function-arguments, they can be pushed in opposite direction
    of the real stack.

@item #define ADDI2P 81

    Add an integer to a pointer. @code{q1,q2->z}.

    @code{q1} and @code{z} are always pointers (of type @code{typf2}) and
    @code{q2} is an integer of type @code{typf}.
    @code{z} has to be @code{q1} increased by @code{q2} bytes.

@item #define SUBIFP 82

    Subtract an Integer from a pointer. @code{q1,q2->z}.

    @code{q1} and @code{z} are always pointers (of type @code{typf2}) and
    @code{q2} is an integer of type @code{typf}.
    @code{z} has to be @code{q1} decreased by @code{q2} bytes.

@item #define SUBPFP 83

    Subtract a pointer from a pointer. @code{q1,q2->z}.

    @code{q1} and @code{q2} are pointers (of type @code{typf2}) and
    @code{z} is an integer of type @code{typf}.
    @code{z} has to be @code{q1 - q2} in bytes.

@item #define GETRETURN 93

    Get the return value of the last function call. @code{->z}.

    If the return value is in a register, its number will be @code{q1.reg}.
    Otherwise @code{q1.reg} will be 0.
    @code{GETRETURN} immediately follows a @code{CALL} IC (except possible
    @code{FREEREG}s).

@item #define SETRETURN 94

    Set the return value of the current function. @code{q1}.

    If the return value is passed in a register, the register number will be @code{z.reg}.
    Otherwise @code{z.reg} will be 0.
    @code{SETRETURN} is immediately followed by a function exit (i.e. it is the last
    IC or followed by an unconditional branch to a label which is the last
    IC - always ignoring possible @code{FREEREG}s).

@item #define MOVEFROMREG 95

    Move a register to memory. @code{q1->z}.

    @code{q1} is always a register and @code{z} an array of size @code{regsize[q1.reg]}.

@item #define MOVETOREG 96

    Load a register from memory. @code{q1->z}.

    @code{z} is always a register and @code{q1} an array of size @code{regsize[z.reg]}.

@item #define NOP 97

    Do nothing.

@end table


@section Type System

@subsection Target Data Types

As the compiler should be portable, we must not assume anything about
the data types of the host system which is not guaranteed by
ANSI/ISO C. Especially do not assume that the data types of the host
system correspond to the ones of the target system.

Therefore, @command{vbcc} will provide typedefs which can hold a data type
of the target machine and (as there is no operator overloading in C)
functions or macros to perform arithmetic on these types.

The typedefs for the basic target's data types (they can be extended
by additional types) are:

@table @code
    @item zchar
           Type @code{char} on the target machine.
    @item zuchar
          Type @code{unsigned char} on the target machine.
    @item zshort
           Type @code{short} on the target machine.
    @item zushort
          Type @code{unsigned short} on the target machine.
    @item zint
           Type @code{int} on the target machine.
    @item zuint
          Type @code{unsigned int} on the target machine.
    @item zlong
           Type @code{long} on the target machine.
    @item zulong
          Type @code{unsigned long} on the target machine.
    @item zllong
           Type @code{long long} on the target machine.
    @item zullong
          Type @code{unsigned long long} on the target machine.
    @item zmax
          A type capable of storing (and correctly doing arithmetic on)
          every signed integer type. Defaults to @code{zllong}.
    @item zumax
          A type capable of storing (and correctly doing arithmetic on)
          every unsigned integer type. Defaults to @code{zullong}.
    @item zfloat
           Type @code{float} on the target machine.
    @item zdouble
           Type @code{double} on the target machine.
    @item zldouble
           Type @code{long double} on the target machine.
    @item zpointer
        A byte pointer on the target machine. Not really used.
@end table

These typedefs and arithmetic functions to work on them will be
generated by the program @command{dtgen} when compiling @command{vbcc}.
It will create the files @file{machines/$(TARGET)/dt.h} and @file{dt.c}.

These files are generated from @file{machines/$(TARGET)/machine.dt}
which must describe what representations the code generator needs.
@command{dtgen} will then ask for available types on the host system and
choose appropriate ones and/or install emulation functions, if available.

In @file{machine.dt}, every data type representation gets a symbol (the ones which are
already available can be looked up in @file{datatypes/datatypes.h} - new
ones will be added when necessary).
The first 14 lines must contain the representations for the
following types:

@enumerate
       @item @code{signed char}
       @item @code{unsigned char}
       @item @code{signed short}
       @item @code{unsigned short}
       @item @code{signed int}
       @item @code{unsigned int}
       @item @code{signed long}
       @item @code{unsigned long}
       @item @code{signed long long}
       @item @code{unsigned long long}
       @item @code{float}
       @item @code{double}
       @item @code{long double}
       @item @code{void *}
@end enumerate

If the code generator can use several representations, these can be
added on the same line separated by spaces. E.g. the code generator
for m68k does not care if the integers are stored big-endian or
little-endian on the host system because it only accesses them through
the provided arithmetic functions. It does, however, access floats
and doubles through byte-pointers and therefore requires them to
be stored in big-endian-format.

@subsection Target Arithmetic

Now you have a lot of functions/macros performing operations using the
target machine's arithmetic. You can look them up in @file{dt.h/dt.c}.
E.g. @code{zmadd()} takes two @code{zmax} and returns their sum as @code{zmadd}. @code{zumadd()} does
the same with @code{zumax}, @code{zldadd()} with long doubles. No functions for smaller types
are needed because you can calculate with the wider types and convert the
results down if needed.

Therefore, there are also conversion functions which convert between types of the
target machine. E.g. @code{zm2zc} takes a @code{zmax} and returns the value
converted to a @code{zchar}.
Again, look at @file{dt.h/dt.c} to see which ones are there.

A few functions for converting between target and host types are also
there, e.g. @code{l2zm} takes a long and returns it converted to @code{zmax}.

At last there are functions for comparing target data types. E.g.
@code{zmleq(a,b)} returns true if @code{zlong a <= zlong b} and false otherwise.
@code{zleqto(a,b)} returns true if @code{zlong a == zlong b} and false otherwise.



@section @file{machine.h}

This section describes the contents of the file @file{machine.h}.
Note that
some optional macros/declaration may be described someplace else in this
manual.

@table @code

@item #include "dt.h"
This should be the first statement in @file{machine.h}.

@item struct AddressingMode @{ ... @};
If machine-specific addressing modes (@pxref{addressingmodes}) are used,
an appropriate structure can be specified here. Otherwise, just enter
the following code:
@example
struct AddressingMode @{
    int never_used;
@};
@end example

@item #define MAXR <n>
Insert the number of available registers.

@item #define MAXGF <n>
Insert the number of command line flags that can be used to
configure the behaviour of the code generator. This must be at least one
even if you do not use any flags.

@item #define USEQ2ASZ <0/1>
If this is set to zero, @command{vbcc} will not generate ICs with the
target operand being the same as the 2nd source operand.
This can sometimes simplify the code-generator, but usually
the code is better if the code-generator allows it.

@item #define MINADDI2P <type>
Insert the smallest integer type
that can be added to a pointer. Smaller types will be automatically converted
to type @code{MINADDI2P} when they are to be added to a pointer.
This may be subsumed by @code{shortcut()} in the future.

@item #define MAXADDI2P <type>
Insert the largest integer type
that can be added to a pointer. Larger types will be automatically converted
to type @code{MAXADDI2P} when they are to be added to a pointer.
This may be subsumed by @code{shortcut()} in the future.

@item #define BIGENDIAN <0/1>
Insert 1 if integers are represented in big endian, i.e. the
most significant byte is at the lowest memory address, the least significant
byte at the highest.

@item #define LITTLEENDIAN <0/1>
Insert 1 if integers are represented in little endian, i.e.
the least significant byte is at the lowest memory address, the most
significant byte at the highest.

@item #define SWITCHSUBS <0/1>
Insert 1 if switch-statements should be compiled into a
series of @code{SUB/TEST/BEQ} instructions rather than @code{COMPARE/BEQ}.
This may be useful if the target has a more efficient @code{SUB}-instruction
which sets condition codes (e.g. 68k).

@item #define INLINEMEMCPY <n>
Insert the largest size in bytes allowed for inline memcpy.
In optimizing compilation, certain library memcpy/strcpy-calls
with length known at compile-time will be inlined using an
@code{ASSIGN} IC if the size is less or equal to @code{INLINEMEMCPY}.
The type used for the @code{ASSIGN} IC will be @code{UNSIGNED|CHAR}.

This may be replaced by a variable of type @code{zmax} in the future.

@item #define ORDERED_PUSH <0/1>
Insert 1 if @code{PUSH} ICs for function arguments shall
be generated from left to right instead right to left.

@item #define HAVE_REGPARMS 1
Insert this line if the backend supports register parameters
(@pxref{regparm}).

@item #define HAVE_REGPAIRS 1
Insert this line if the backend supports register pairs
(@pxref{regpairs}).

@item #define HAVE_INT_SIZET 1
Insert this line if @code{size_t} shall be of type @code{unsigned int}
rather than @code{unsigned long}.

@item #define EMIT_BUF_LEN <n>
Insert the maximum length of a line of code output.

@item #define EMIT_BUF_DEPTH <n>
Insert the number of output lines that should be buffered. This
can be useful for peephole-optimizing the assembly output (see
below).

@item #define HAVE_TARGET_PEEPHOLE <0/1>
Insert 1 if the backend provides an @code{asm_peephole()}
function (@pxref{asmpeephole}).

@item #define HAVE_TARGET_ATTRIBUTES 1
Insert this line if the backend provides old target-specific
variable-attributes (@pxref{targetattributes}).

@item #define HAVE_TARGET_PRAGMAS 1
Insert this line if the backend provides target-specific
@code{#pragma}-directives (@pxref{targetpragmas}).

@item #define HAVE_REGS_MODIFIED 1
Insert this line if the backend supports inter-procedural
register-allocation (@pxref{regsmodified}).

@item #define HAVE_TARGET_RALLOC 1
Insert this line if the backend supports context-sensitive
register-allocation (@pxref{targetralloc}).

@item #define HAVE_TARGET_EFF_IC 1
Insert this line if the backend provides a @code{mark_eff_ics()}
function (@pxref{markeffics}).

@item #define HAVE_EXT_IC 1
Insert this line if the backend provides a @code{struct ext_ic}
(@pxref{extic}).

@item #define HAVE_EXT_TYPES 1
Insert this line if the backend supports additional types
(@pxref{exttypes}).

@item #define HAVE_TGT_PRINTVAL 1
Insert this line if the backend provides an own @code{printval} function
@pxref{tgtprintval}).

@item #define JUMP_TABLE_DENSITY <float>
@item #define JUMP_TABLE_LENGTH <int>
These values controls the creation of jump-tables (@pxref{jumptables}).


@item #define ALLOCVLA_REG <reg>
@item #define ALLOCVLA_INLINEASM <inline-asm>
@item #define FREEVLA_REG <reg>
@item #define FREEVLA_INLINEASM <inline-asm>
@item #define OLDSPVLA_INLINEASM <inline-asm>
@item #define FPVLA_REG <reg>
Necessary defines for C99 variable-length-arrays (@pxref{vlas}).

@item #define HAVE_LIBCALLS 1
Insert this line if the backend wants certain ICs to be replaced with
calls to library functions (@pxref{libcalls}).

@item #define AVOID_FLOAT_TO_UNSIGNED 1
@item #define AVOID_UNSIGNED_TO_FLOAT 1
Insert these lines to tell the frontend not to generate @code{CONVERT} ICs
that convert between unsigned integers and floating point. In those cases,
additional intermediate code will be generated that implements the
conversion using only signed integers.

@end table

@section @file{machine.c}

This is the main part of the code generator. The first statement
should be @code{#include "supp.h"} which will include all necessary
declarations.

The following variables and functions must be provided by machine.c.

@subsection Name and Copyright

    The codegenerater must define a zero-terminated character array
    @code{char cg_copyright[];} containing name and copyright-notice of
    the code-generator.

@subsection Command Line Options

    You can use code generator specific commandline options.
    The number of flags is specified as @code{MAXGF} in @file{machine.h}.
    Insert the names for the flags as @code{char *g_flags_name[MAXGF]}.
    If an option was specified @code{(g_flags[i]&USEDFLAG)} is not zero.
    In @code{int g_flags[MAXGF]} you can choose how the options are to be
    used:
@table @code
        @item 0
                The option can only be specified. E.g. if
                @code{g_flags_name[2]=="myflag"}, the commandline may contain
                @option{-myflag} and @code{(g_flags[2]&USEDFLAG)!=0}.
      @item VALFLAG
   The option must be specified with an integer constant, e.g.
                @option{-myflag=1234}. This value can be found in
                @code{g_flags_val[2].l}.
   @item  STRINGFLAG
   The option must be specified with a string, e.g.
                @option{-myflag=Hallo}. The pointer to the string can be found in
                @code{g_flags_val[2].p}.
@end table

@subsection Data Types

The following variables have to be initialized to describe the
representation of the data types.

@table @code
@item MAX_TYPE
 This macro contains the number of different types. In case of target-specific
 extended types (@pxref{exttypes}) this is set by the backend, otherwise the
 frontend will use a default.

@item zmax char_bit;
 The number of bits in a @code{char} on the target (usually 8).

@item    zmax align[MAX_TYPE+1];
 This array must contain the necessary alignments for every
    type in bytes. Some of the entries in this array are not actually
    used, but @code{align[type&NQ]} must yield the correct alignment for every type.
    @code{align[CHAR]} must be 1.

    The alignment of a structure depends not only on @code{sizetab[STRUCT]}
    but also on the alignment of the members. The maximum of the alignments
    of all members and @code{sizetab[STRUCT]} is the alignment of any
    particular structure, i.e. @code{sizetab[STRUCT]} is only a minimum
    alignment.

    The same applies to unions and arrays.

@item zmax maxalign;
        This variable  must be set to an alignment in bytes that is used when
    pushing arguments on the stack. (FIXME: describe stackalign)

@item zmax sizetab[MAX_TYPE+1];
 This array must contain the sizes of every type in bytes.

@item zmax t_min[MAX_TYPE+1];
  This array must contain the smallest representable number for every
    signed integer type.

@item zumax t_max[MAX_TYPE+1];
  This array must contain the largest representable number for every
    signed integer type.

@item zumax tu_max[MAX_TYPE+1];
  This array must contain the largest representable number for every
    unsigned integer type.

@end table

    As @code{zmax} and @code{zumax} may be no elementary types on the host
    machine, those arrays have to be initialized dynamically (in 
    @code{init_cg()}). It is recommended to use explicit typenames, e.g.
    @code{sizetab[INT]=l2zm(4L);} to keep it portable and allow
    later extensions of the type system.

    Also note that those values
    may not be representable as constants by the host architecture and have to
    be calculated using the functions for arithmetic on the target's data
    types. E.g. the smallest representable value of a 32bit twos-complement
    data type is not guaranteed to be valid on every ANSI C implementation.

    You may not use simple operators on the target data types
    but you have to use the functions or convert them to an elementary
    type of the host machine before (if you know that it is representable
    as such).

@subsection Register Set

The following variables have to be initialized to describe the
register set of the target.

@table @code
@item MAXR
    The valid registers are numbered from 1..@code{MAXR}.
    @code{MAXR} must be @code{#define}d in @file{machine.h}.

@item char *regnames[MAXR+1]
This array must contain the names for every register. They do not
necessarily have to be used in the assembly output but are used for
explicit register arguments.

@item zmax regsize[MAXR+1]
This array must contain the size of each register in bytes.
    It is used to create storage if registers have to be saved.

@item int regscratch[MAXR+1]
This array must contain information whether a register is
    a scratchregister, i.e. may be destroyed during a function call (1 or 0).
    vbcc will generate code to save/restore all scratch-registers which are
    assigned a value when calling a function (unless it knows the register
    will not be modified). However, if the code generator
    uses additional scratch-registers it has to take care to save/restore
    them.

    Also, the code generator must take care that used non-scratch-registers
    are saved/restored on function entry/exit.

@item int regsa[MAXR+1]
This array must contain information whether a register is in use
    or not at the beginning of a function (1 or 0).
    The compiler will not use any of those registers for register variables
    or temporaries, therefore this can be used to mark special registers
    like a stack- or frame-pointer and to reserve registers to the
    code-generator. The latter may
    be reasonable if for many ICs code cannot be generated without using
    additional registers.

    You must set @code{regsratch[i] = 0} if @code{regsa[i] == 1}. If you
    want it to be
    saved across function calls the code generator has to take care of this.

@item int reg_prio[MAXR+1];
This array must contain a priority (>=0) for every register. When the
register allocator has to choose between several registers which seem
to be equal, it will choose the one with the highest priority (if
several registers have the same priority it is undefined which one
will be taken).

Note that this priority is only the last decision factor if everything
else seems to be equal. If one register seems to give a higher cost saving
(according to the estimation of the register allocator) but has a lower
priority, it will nevertheless be used. The priority can be used to
fine-tune the register selection. Some guidelines:
@itemize @minus
@item Scratch registers might have a higher priority than non-scratch
        registers (although the register-allocator will usually handle
        this anyway).
@item Registers which are more restricted should have a higher priority
        (if they seem to give the same saving it is usually better to use
        the restricted registers and try to keep the more versatile ones
        for situation in which they can give better savings).
@item Registers which are used for argument-passing should have lower
        priority than registers not used for arguments. The priority
        within the argument-registers should decrease as the frequency
        of usage as argument increases (typically the register for the first
        argument is used most frequently, etc.).
@end itemize

@end table

Note that for the array @code{zmax regsize[]} the same comments mentioned
in the section on data types regarding initialization apply.


@subsection Functions

The following functions have to be implemented by the code generator.
There may be optional additional functions described in other sections.

@table @code
@item int init_cg(void);
    This function is called after the commandline arguments are parsed.
    It can set up certain internal data, etc. The arrays regarding the
    data types and the register set can be set up at this point rather
    than with a static initialization, however the arrays regarding the
    commandline options have to be static initialized.
    The results of the commandline options are available at this point.

    If something goes wrong, 0 has to be returned, otherwise 1.

@item void cleanup_cg(FILE *f);
    This function is called before the compiler exits. @code{f} is the output
    file which must be checked against 0 before using.

@item int freturn(struct Typ *t);
    This function has to return the number of the register return
    values of type @code{t} are passed in. If the type is not passed in a
    register, 0 must be returned. Usually the decision can be made
    only considering @code{t->flags}, ignoring the full type
    (@pxref{compositetypes}).

@item int regok(int r, int t, int mode);
    Check whether the type t can be stored in register @code{r} and whether
    the usual operations (for this type) can be generated. Return 0, if not.

    If @code{t} is a pointer and @code{mode==0} the register only has to be
    able to store the pointer and do arithmetic, but if @code{mode!=0} it has
    to be able to dereference the pointer.

    @code{mode==-1} is used with context-sensitive register-allocation
    (@pxref{targetralloc}). If the backend does not support it, this case
    can be handled equivalent to @code{mode==0}.

    If @code{t==0} return whether the register can be used to store condition codes.
    This is only relevant if @code{multiple_ccs} is set to 1.

@item int dangerous_IC(struct IC *p);
    Check if this IC can raise exceptions or is otherwise dangerous.
    Movement of ICs which are dangerous is restricted to preserve the
    semantics of the program.

    Typical dangerous ICs are divisions or pointer dereferencing. On certain
    targets floating point or even signed integer arithmetic can raise
    exceptions, too.

@item int must_convert(int from,int to,int const_expr);
    Check if code must be generated to convert from type @code{from} to
    type @code{to}. E.g. on
    many machines certain types have identical representations (integers
    of the same size or pointers and integers of the same size).

    If @code{const_expr != 0} return if a conversion was necessary in
    a constant expression.

    For example, a machine may have identical
    pointers and integers, but different sets of registers (one set
    supports integer operations and the other pointer operations).
    Therefore, @code{must_convert()} would return 1 (we need a
    @code{CONVERT} IC to move the value from one register set to the
    other).
    
    This would imply that @command{vbcc} would not allow a
    cast from a pointer to an integer or vice-versa in constant expressions
    (as it will not
    generate code for static initializations). However, in this
    case, a static initialization would be ok as the representation is
    identical and registers are not involved. Therefore, the backend
    can return 1 if @code{const_expr == 0} and 0 otherwise.

@item int shortcut(int code, int t);
    In C no operations are done with chars and shorts because of integral
    promotion. However sometimes @command{vbcc} might see that an operation could
    be performed with the short types yielding the same result.

    Before generating such an instruction with short types @command{vbcc} will ask
    the code generator by calling @code{shortcut()} to find out whether it
    should do so. Return true iff it is a win to perform the operation
    @code{code} with
    type @code{t} rather than promoting the operands and using e.g. @code{int}.

@item void gen_code(FILE *f, struct IC *p, struct Var *v, zmax offset);
    This function has to emit code for a function to stream @code{f}.
    @code{v} is the function being generated,
    @code{p} is a pointer to the list of ICs, that has to be converted.
    @code{offset} is the space needed for local variables in bytes.

    This function has to take care that only scratchregisters are destroyed
    by this function. The array @code{regused} contains information about the
    registers that have been used by @command{vbcc} in this function. However if the
    code generator uses additional registers it has to take care of them,
    too.

    The @code{regs[]} and @code{regused[]} arrays may be overwritten by @code{gen_code()} as well
    as parts of the list of ICs. However the list of ICs must still be a
    valid list of ICs after @code{gen_code()} returns.

    All assembly output should be generated using the available
    @code{emit} functions. These functions are able to keep several
    lines of assembly output buffered and allow peephole optimizations
    on assembly output (@pxref{asmpeephole}).

@item void gen_ds(FILE *f, zmax size, struct Typ *t);
    Has to emit output that generates @code{size} bytes of type @code{t}
    initialized with proper 0.

    @code{t} is a pointer to a @code{struct Typ} which contains the precise type of
    the variable. On machines where every type can be initialized to 0
    by setting all bits to zero, the type does not matter. Otherwise
    @pxref{compositetypes}.

    All assembly output should be generated using the available
    @code{emit} functions.
    

@item void gen_align(FILE *f, zmax align);
    Has to emit output that ensures the following data to be aligned to
    @code{align} bytes.

    All assembly output should be generated using the available
    @code{emit} functions.

@item void gen_var_head(FILE *f, struct Var *v);
    Has to print the head of a static or external variable @code{v}. This includes
    the label and necessary information for external linkage etc.

    Typically variables will be generated by a call to @code{gen_align()} followed
    by @code{gen_var_head()} and (a series of) calls to @code{gen_dc()} and/or @code{gen_ds()}. It may be necessary to keep track of the information passed
    to @code{gen_var_head()}.

    All assembly output should be generated using the available
    @code{emit} functions.

@item void gen_dc(FILE *f, int t, struct const_list *p);
    Emit initialized data. @code{t} is the basic type that has to be
    emitted. @code{p} points to a @code{struct const_list}.

    If @code{p->tree != 0} then @code{p->tree->o} is a @code{struct obj}
    which has to be emitted. This will usually be the address of a
    variable of storage class static or unsigned, possibly with an offset
    added (@pxref{operands} for further details).

    if @code{p->tree == 0} then @code{p->val} is a @code{union atyps}
    which contains (in the member corresponding to @code{t}) the constant
    value to be emitted.

    All assembly output should be generated using the available
    @code{emit} functions.

@item void init_db(FILE *f);
    If debug-information is requested, this functions is called after
    @code{init_cg()}, but before any code is generated.
    See also @ref{debuginfo}.

@item void cleanup_db(FILE *f);
    If debug-information is requested, this functions is called prior to
    @code{cleanup_cg()}.
    See also @ref{debuginfo}.

@end table

@section Available Support Functions, Macros and Variables

This section lists a series of general variables, macros and functions
which are available to the backend and may prove useful. Note that there
may be additional support specific to certain features which will be mentioned
at appropriate sections in this manual.

@table @code
@item MAXINT
A constant for the largest target integer type (@code{zmax}). It is outside
the range of the other types and cannot be accessed by an application
(although there will usually be an accessible type with the same 
representation).

@item MAX_TYPE
The type number of the last type.

@item NQ
A mask. @code{t & NQ} will delete all type-qualifiers of a type.

@item NU
A mask. @code{t & NU} will delete all type-qualifiers but
@code{UNSIGNED} of a type.

@item q1typ(p)
Yields the type of the first source operand of IC @code{p}.
Undefined if the operand is not used!

@item q2typ(p)
Yields the type of the second source operand of IC @code{p}.
Undefined if the operand is not used!

@item ztyp(p)
Yields the type of the destination operand of IC @code{p}.
Undefined if the operand is not used!

@item iclabel(p)
Returns the label of an IC. Only defined if @code{p->code} is
@code{LABEL, BEQ, BNE, BLT, BGT, BLE} or @code{BGE}.

@item opsize(p)
Returns the size of the operand of an @code{ASSIGN} or @code{PUSH}
IC as @code{zmax}.

@item pushsize(p)
Returns the stack-adjustment value of a @code{PUSH} IC as @code{zmax}.
It is always greater or equal than @code{opsize(p)}.

@item pushedargsize(p)
Returns the space occupied by arguments passed on the stack
as parameters for a function call. Only valid for @code{CALL} ICs.

@item isstatic(sc)
Tests whether the storage-class @code{sc} denotes a variable with
static storage and no external linkage.

@item isextern(sc)
Tests whether the storage-class @code{sc} denotes a variable with
static storage and external linkage.

@item isauto(sc)
Tests whether the storage-class @code{sc} denotes a variable with
automatic storage-duration.

@item t_min(t)
@itemx t_max(t)
These macros yield the smallest and largest representable value of any
target integer type, e.g. @code{t_min(INT)} or @code{t_max(UNSIGNED|LONG)}.

@item ISPOINTER(t)
@item ISINT(t)
@item ISFLOAT(t)
@item ISFUNC(t)
@item ISSTRUCT(t)
@item ISUNION(t)
@item ISARRAY(t)
@item ISSCALAR(t)
@itemx ISARITH(t)
These macros test whether the simple type @code{t} is a pointer type,
an integral type, a floating point type, a function, a structure type,
a union type, an array type, a scalar (integer, floating point or pointer)
and an arithmetic type (integer or floating point), respectively.

@item int label;
The number of the last label used so far. For a new label number, use
@code{++label}.

@item zmax falign(struct Typ *t);
This function returns the alignment of a full type. Contrary to the
@code{align[]} array provided by the backend (which is used by this function),
it will yield correct values for composite types like structures and arrays.

@item zmax szof(struct Typ *t);
This function returns the size in bytes of a full type. Contrary to the
@code{sizetab[]} array provided by the backend (which is used by this function),
it will yield correct values for composite types like structures and arrays.

@item void *mymalloc(size_t size);
@item void *myrealloc(void *p,size_t size);
@itemx void myfree(void *p);
Memory allocation functions similar to @code{malloc(), realloc()} and
@code{free}. They will automatically
clean up the exit in the case an allocation fails. Also, some debug
possibilities are available.

@item void emit(FILE *f,const char *fmt,...);
@item void emit_char(FILE *f,int c) ;
@item void emitval(FILE *f,union atyps *p,int t);
@item void emitzm(FILE *f,zmax x);
@item void emitzum(FILE *f,zumax x); 
All output produced by the backend should be produced using these
functions. @code{emit()} uses a format like @code{printf()},
@code{emitval(), emitzm()} and @code{emitzum()} are suitable to
output target integers as decimal text. Currently emitting floating
point constants has to be done by the backend.

@item int is_const(struct Typ *);
Tests whether a full type is constant (e.g. to decide whether it can be
put into a ROM section).

@item int is_volatile_obj(struct obj *);
@itemx int is_volatile_ic(struct IC *);
Tests whether an object or IC is volatile. Only of interest to the backend
in rare cases.

@item int switch_IC(struct IC *p);
This function checks whether @code{p->q2} and @code{p->z} use the
same register (including register pairs). If they do, it will try
to swap @code{p->q1} and @code{p->q2} (only possible if the IC is
commutative). It is often possible to generate
better code if @code{p->q2} and @code{p->z} do not collide. Note
however, that it is not always possible to eliminate a conflict and
the code generator still has to be able to handle such a case.

The function returns 0 if no modification took place and non-zero if
the IC has been modified.

@item union atyps gval;
@item void eval_const(union atyps *p,int t);
@itemx void insert_const(union atyps *p,int t);
For every target data type there is a corresponding global variable
of that type, e.g. @code{zchar vchar, zuchar vuchar, zmax vmax} etc.
These two functions simplify handling of target data types by transferring
between a @code{union atyps} and these variables.

@code{eval_const()} reads the member of the union corresponding to the
type @code{t} and converts it into all the global variables while
@code{insert_const()} takes the global variable according to @code{t}
and puts it into the appropriate member of the @code{union atyps}.

The global variable @code{gval} may be used as a temporary
@code{union atyps} by the backend.

@item void printzm(FILE *f,zmax x);
@item void printzum(FILE *f,zumax x) ;
@item void printval(FILE *f,union atyps *p,int t);
@item void printtype(FILE *o,struct Typ *p);
@item void printobj(FILE *f,struct obj *p,int t);
@item void printic(FILE *f,struct IC *p);
@itemx void printiclist(FILE *f,struct IC *first);
This is a series of functions which print a more or less human
readable version of the corresponding type to a stream. These functions
are to be used only for debugging purposes, not for generating code.
Also, the arguments must contain valid values.

@item bvtype
@itemx BVSIZE(n)
@command{vbcc} provides macros and functions for handling bit-vectors
which may also be used by the backend. @code{bvtype} is the basic type
to create bit-vectors of. @code{BVSIZE(n)} yields the number of
bytes needed to implement a bit-vector with @code{n} elements.
@example
bvtype *mybv = mymalloc(BVSIZE(n));
@end example

@item BSET(bv,n)
@item BCLR(bv,n)
@itemx BTST(bv,n)
Macros which set, clear and test the @code{n}-th bit in bit-vector @code{bv}.

@item void bvunite(bvtype *dest,bvtype *src,size_t len);
@item void bvintersect(bvtype *dest,bvtype *src,size_t len);
@itemx void bvdiff(bvtype *dest,bvtype *src,size_t len);
These functions calculate the union, intersection and difference of two
bit-vectors. @code{dest} is the first operand as well as the destination.
@code{len} is the length of the bit-vectors in bytes, not in bits.

@item void bvcopy(bvtype *dest,bvtype *src,size_t len);
@item void bvclear(bvtype *dest,size_t len);
@itemx void bvsetall(bvtype *dest,size_t len);
These functions copy, clear and fill bit-vectors.

@item int bvcmp(bvtype *bv1,bvtype *bv2,size_t len);
@itemx int bvdointersect(bvtype *bv1,bvtype *bv2,size_t len);
These functions test whether two bit-vectors are equal or
have a non-empty intersection, respectively. The do not modify the
bit-vectors.

@end table


@section Hints for common Optimizations

While it is no easy job to produce a stable code generator for a new target
architecture, there is a huge difference between a simple backend and
a highly optimized code generator which produces small and efficient 
high quality code. Although @command{vbcc} is able to do a lot machine
independent global optimizations for every target automatically, it is still
common for an optimized backend to produce code up to twice as fast on
average as a simple one.

Sometimes, a simple backend is sufficient and the
work required to produce high-quality code is not worthwhile. However,
this section lists a series of common backend optimizations which are
often done in case that good code-quality is desired. Note that neither are
all of these optimizations applicable (without modifications or at all)
to all architectures nor is
this an exhaustive list. It is just a list of recommendations to consider.
You have to make sure that the optimization is safe and beneficial for
the architecture you are targetting. 


@subsection Instruction Combining

While ICs are often a bit more powerful than instructions of a typical
microprocessor, sometimes several of them can be implemented by a single
instruction or more efficient code can be generated when looking at a
few of them rather than at each one separately.

In the simple case, this can be done by looking at the current IC,
deciding whether it is a candidate for combining and then test whether
the next IC (or ICs) are suitable for combining. This is relatively easy
to perform, however some care has to be taken to verify that the
combination is indeed legal (e.g. what happens if the first IC modifies
a value which is used by the following IC).

A more sophisticated implementation might look at a larger sequence of
instructions to find more possibilities for optimization. Detecting
whether the combination is legal becomes much more difficult then.

Sometimes the IC migh compute a temporary result which would be eliminated by
the complex machine instruction. Then it is necessary to verify that it
was indeed a temporary result which is not used anywhere else. As long as
the result is in a register, this can be done by checking for a
@code{FREEREG} IC.

Examples for instruction combining are multiply-and-add or bit-test
instructions which are available on many architectures.
Special cases are complex
addressing modes and instructions which can automatically set condition
codes which are described in the following sections.


@node addressingmodes
@subsection Addressing Modes

The intermediate code generated by vbcc does not use any
addressing-modes a target might offer. Therefore the code generator
must find a way to combine several statements if it wants to make use
of these modes. E.g. on the m68k the intermediate code
@example
        ADDI2P  int     a0,#20->a1
        ASSIG   int     #10->(a1)
        FREEREG         a1
@end example
could be translated to
@example
        move.l  #10,20(a0)
@end example
(notice the @code{FREEREG} which is important).

To aid in this there is a pointer to a @code{struct AddressingMode} in every
@code{struct obj}. A code generator could e.g. do a pass over the intermediate
code, find possible uses for addressing-modes, allocate a
@code{struct AddressingMode} and store a pointer in the
@code{struct obj}, effectively replacing the obj.

If the code generator supports extended addressing-modes, you have to think
of a way to represent them and define the @code{struct AddressingMode} so that
all modes can be stored in it. The machine independent part of
@command{vbcc} will
not use these modes, so your code generator has to find a way to combine
several statements to make use of these modes.

A possible implementation of a structure to handle the addressing mode
described above as well as a register-indirect mode could be:
@example
#define IMM_IND 1
#define REG_IND 2

struct AddressingMode @{
  int flags;   /* either IMM_IND or REG_IND */
  int base;    /* base register */
  zmax offset; /* offset in case of IMM_IND */
  int idx;     /* index register in case of REG_IND */
@}
@end example

When the code generator is done that pointer in every @code{struct obj} must
either be zero or point to a @code{mymalloc}ed @code{struct AddressingMode}
which will be free'd by @command{vbcc}.

Following is an example of a function which traverses a list of ICs and
inserts addressing modes with constant offsets where possible.
@example
/* search for possible addressing-modes */
static void find_addr_modes(struct IC *p)
@{
  int c,c2,r;
  struct IC *p2;
  struct AddressingMode *am;

  for(;p;p=p->next)@{
    c=p->code;

    if(IMM_IND&&(c==ADDI2P||c==SUBIFP)&&
       isreg(z)&&(p->q2.flags&(KONST|DREFOBJ))==KONST)@{
      /* we have found addi2p q1,#const->reg */
      int base;zmax of;struct obj *o;

      eval_const(&p->q2.val,p->typf);
      /* handle sub instead of add */
      if(c==SUBIFP)
        of=zmsub(l2zm(0L),vmax);
      else
        of=vmax;

      /* Is the offset suitable for an addressing mode? */
      if(ISVALID_OFFSET(vmax))@{
        r=p->z.reg;
        /* If q1 is a register, we use it as base-register,
           otherwise q1 is loaded in the temporary register
           and this one used as base register. */
        if(isreg(q1))
          base=p->q1.reg;
        else
          base=r;

        o=0;
        /* Now search the following instructions. */
        for(p2=p->next;p2;p2=p2->next)@{
          c2=p2->code;

          /* End of a basic block. We have to abort. */
          if(c2==CALL||c2==LABEL||(c2>=BEQ&&c2<=BRA)) break;

          /* The temporary register is used. We have to abort. */
          if(c2!=FREEREG&&(p2->q1.flags&(REG|DREFOBJ))==REG&&
             p2->q1.reg==r)
              break;
      	  if(c2!=FREEREG&&(p2->q2.flags&(REG|DREFOBJ))==REG&&
             p2->q2.reg==r) 
              break;

          if(c2!=CALL&&(c2<LABEL||c2>BRA)&&c2!=ADDRESS)@{
            /* See, if we find a valid use (dereference) of the
               temporary register. */
            if(!p->q1.am&&(p2->q1.flags&(REG|DREFOBJ))==(REG|DREFOBJ)&&
              p2->q1.reg==r)@{
              if(o) break;
              o=&p2->q1;
            @}
            if(!p->q1.am&&(p2->q2.flags&(REG|DREFOBJ))==(REG|DREFOBJ)&&
               p2->q2.reg==r)@{
              if(o) break;
              o=&p2->q2;
            @}
            if(!p->q1.am&&(p2->z.flags&(REG|DREFOBJ))==(REG|DREFOBJ)&&
               p2->z.reg==r)@{
              if(o) break;
              o=&p2->z;
            @}
          @}
          if(c2==FREEREG||(p2->z.flags&(REG|DREFOBJ))==REG)@{
            int m;
            if(c2==FREEREG)
              m=p2->q1.reg;
            else
              m=p2->z.reg;
            if(m==r)@{
            /* The value of the temporary register is not used any more
               (either due to FREEREG or because it is overwritten).
               If we have found exactly one dereference, we can use
               a target addressing mode. */
              if(o)@{
                o->am=am=mymalloc(sizeof(*am));
                am->flags=IMM_IND;
                am->base=base;
                am->offset=zm2l(of);
                if(isreg(q1))@{
                  /* The base already was in a register. We can
                     eliminate the ADDI2P IC. */
                  p->code=c=NOP;p->q1.flags=p->q2.flags=p->z.flags=0;
                @}else@{
                  /* The base was not in a register.
                     We have to load it . */
                  p->code=c=ASSIGN;p->q2.flags=0;
                  p->typf=p->typf2;p->q2.val.vmax=sizetab[p->typf2&NQ];
                @}
              @}
              break;
            @}
            if(c2!=FREEREG&&m==base) break;
            continue;
          @}
        @}
      @}
    @}
  @}
@}
@end example

@subsection Implicit setting of Condition Codes

Many architectures have instruction that automatically set the
condition codes according to the computed result. For these architectures
it is generally a good idea to keep track of the setting of condition
codes (e.g. if they reflect the state of some object or register). A
subsequent @code{TEST} or @code{COMPARE} instruction can then often be
eliminated.

Care has to be taken to delete this information if either the condition
codes may be modified or the object they represent is modified. Also,
this optimization is usually hard to do across labels.

Some architectures provide versions of instructions which set condition
codes as well as versions which do not. This obviously enable more
optimizations, but it is more difficult to make use of this. One
possibility is to search the list of ICs backwards starting from
every suitable @code{TEST} or @code{COMPARE} instruction. If an IC
is found which computes the tested object, the IC can be marked
(extended ICs can be used for marking, @pxref{extic}).


@node regparm
@subsection Register Parameters

While passing of arguments to functions can be done by pushing them on
the stack, it is often more efficient to pass them in registers if the
architecture has enough registers.

To use register parameters you have to add the line
@example
#define HAVE_REGPARMS 1
@end example
to @file{machine.h} and define a
@example
        struct reg_handle @{...@}
@end example
This struct is used by the compiler to find out which register should be used
to pass an argument. @file{machine.c} has to contain an initialized
variable
@example
        struct reg_handle empty_reg_handle;
@end example
which represents the default state, and a function
@example
        int reg_parm(struct reg_handle *, struct Typ *, int vararg, struct Typ *);
@end example
which returns the number of the register the next argument will be
passed in (or 0 if the argument is not passed in a register). Also,
it has to update the reg_handle in a way that successive calls to
@code{reg_parm()}
yield the correct register for every argument.

@code{vararg} is different from zero, if the argument is part of the variable
arguments of a function accepting a variable number of arguments.

It is also possible to return a negative number @code{x}. In this case,
the argument will be passed in register number @code{-x}, but also a
stack-slot will be reserved for this argument (i.e. a @code{PUSH} IC
without an operand will be generated). If @option{-double-push} is
specified, the argument will also be written to the stack-slot (i.e.
it will be passed twice, in a register and on the stack).

@node regpairs
@subsection Register Pairs

Often, there are types which cannot be stored in a single machine register,
but it may be more efficient to store them in two registers rather than
in memory. Typical examples are integers which are bigger than the
register size or architectures which combine two floating point registers
into one register of double precision.

To make use of register pairs, the line
@example
#define HAVE_REGPAIRS 1
@end example
has to be added to @file{machine.h}. The register pairs are declared
as normal registers (each register pair counts as an own register and
@code{MAXR} has to be adjusted). Usually only adjacent registers are
declared as register pairs. Note that @code{regscratch} must be identical
for both registers of a pair.

Now the function
@example
int reg_pair(int r,struct rpair *p);
@end example
must be implemented. If register @code{r} is a register pair, the function
has to set @code{p->r1} and @code{p->r2} to the first and second register
which comprise the pair and return 1. Otherwise, zero has to be returned.


@subsection Elimination of Frame-Pointer

Local variables on the stack can usually be addressed via a so-called
frame-pointer which is set set to current stack-pointer at the entry
of a function. However, in the code generated by @command{vbcc}, the
difference between the stack-pointer and the frame-pointer is fixed
at any instruction.

Therefore it is possible to keep track of this offset (by counting the
bytes every time code for pushing or popping from the stack is generated).
Using this offset, local variables can perhaps be addressed using the
stack-pointer directly. Benefit would be smaller function entry/exit code
as well as an additional free register which can be used for other
purposes.

Note that only few debuggers can handle such a situation.

@subsection Delayed popping of Stack-Slots

In most ABIs arguments which are pushed on the stack are not popped
by the called function but the caller pops them by adjusting the stack
after the callee returns (otherwise variable arguments would be hard
to implement).

If several functions are called in sequence, it is not necessary to
adjust the stack after each call but the arguments for several calls
can be popped at once. It can be implemented by keeping track of the
size to be popped and deferring popping to a point where it has to be
done (e.g. a label or a branch). Also, in the case of nested calls,
care has to be taken to pop arguments at the right time.

Note that this usually saves code-size and execution time but will
increase stack-usage. Therefore, it may not be advisable for small systems.

@subsection Optimized Return

Return instructions are not explicitly represented in ICs. Rather, they are
branches to a label which is the last IC in the list (except possible
@code{FREEREG}s).

It is possible to generate working code by translating
these branches normally, but directly inserting the function exit code
instead of a branch is often faster. It is most recommendable if the
exit code is small (e.g. no registers have to be restored and no
stack-frame removed).

Another common possibility for optimization is a function call as the last
IC. If return addresses are pushed on the stack and no function exit code
is needed, it is usually possible to generate a jump-instruction, i.e.
replace
@example
    call  somefunc
    ret
@end example
by
@example
    jmp   somefunc
@end example

@node jumptables
@subsection Jump Tables

An important optimization is the creation of jump-tables for a series of
comparisons with constants. Such series are usually created by a C
@code{switch} construct, but vbcc can also recognize some of them if they
are created through @code{if}-sequences.

@file{supp.c} provides the function @code{calc_case_table(<IC>,<density>)}
to check for constructs that can be replaced by a jump table. The arguments
are the start IC to look for (it has to be a @code{COMPARE}-IC with a 
constant as @code{q2}) and a minimal density. The density reflects the
number of cases that are used divided by the range of cases. If the density
is high, vbcc will use jump-tables only for sequences that have few unused
cases inside. If the case tables occupy multiple ranges, vbcc is able to split
them up and create multiple jump-tables.

@code{calc_case_table} returns a pointer to a @code{struct case_table} with
the following content:

@table @code
@item num
The number of cases.

@item typf
The type of the case IDs.

@item next_ic
The first IC after the list of ICs that can be replaced by the jump-table.

@item density
The case density.

@item vals
The values of the case IDs (array containing @code{num} entries).

@item labels
The labels of the code corresponding to the case IDs
(array containing @code{num} entries).

@item min
The lowest case ID.

@item max
The highest case ID.

@item diff
@code{max-min}.

@end table

If the backend decides to emit a jump-table, it has to generate code that
will check that the control expression lies between @code{min} and @code{max}.
If not, the jump-table must not be executed. Code for the computed jump
must then be generated. The actual table can be emitted using
@code{emit_jump_table()}. Processing can then continue with @code{next_ic}.

@node targetralloc
@subsection Context-sensitive Register-Allocation

The @code{regok()} function is only a simple means of telling the
register allocator which registers to use. It works fairly well with
orthogonal register and instruction sets. However, it does not really
care about the operations performed and it allocates variables to registers
only according to their type, not according to the operations performed.

Some architectures provide different kinds of registers which are able to
store a type, but not all of them are able to perform all operations or some
operations are more expensive with some registers. To do good register
allocation for these systems, the operations which are used on variables
have to be considered.

If the backend wants to support this kind of register allocation, it has
to define @code{HAVE_TARGET_RALLOC} and provide the following functions
or macros:

@table @code
@item int cost_move_reg(int x,int y);
The cost of copying register @code{x} to register @code{y}.
@item int cost_load_reg(int r,struct Var *v);
The cost of loading register @code{r} from variable @code{v}.
@item int cost_save_reg(int r,struct Var *v);
The cost of storing register @code{r} into variable @code{v}.
@item int cost_pushpop_reg(int r);
The cost of storing register @code{r} during function prologue and
restoring it in the epilogue.
@item int cost_savings(struct IC *p,int r,struct obj *o);
Estimate the savings which would be obtained if the object @code{o}
in IC @code{p} would be assigned to register @code{r} (in this IC). If the
backend was not able
to emit code in this case, @code{INT_MIN} must be returned.

If @code{(o->flags & VKONST) != 0}, the register allocator is thinking
about putting a constant (or address of a static variable) in a register.
In this case, the real object which would be put in a register is found
in @code{o->v->cobj}.
@end table

The unit of the costs can be chosen by the backend, but should be some
reasonable small values.

If @code{regok()} is called with a third parameter of -1, it is possible
to return non-zero for a register which cannot perform all operations.
The register allocator will call @code{cost_savings()} and returning
@code{INT_MIN} can be used to prevent this register from being allocated,
if the register is not suitable for a certain operation.


@node regsmodified
@subsection Inter-procedural Register-Allocation

To support inter-procedural register allocation, the backend must tell the
optimizer which registers are used by a function. As the backend might use
some registers internally, the frontend can not know this.

Apart from defining @code{HAVE_REGS_MODIFIED} in @file{machine.h}, the
backend has to mark all registers that are modified in the bitfield
@code{regs_modified}. A register can be marked with
@code{BSET(regs_modified,<reg>)}. For a call IC, the function @code{calc_regs()}
(from @file{supp.h}) can be called to mark the registers used by a call IC.
It will return 1 if it was able to determine all registers used by this IC.

If the register usage could be determined for the entire function, the
backend can set the bit @code{ALL_REGS} in the fi-member of the function
variable (@code{v->fi->flags|=ALL_REGS;}).


@subsection Conditional Instructions

FIXME: To be written.

@node extic
@subsection Extended ICs

If the backend defines @code{HACE_EXT_IC}, it has to define a
@code{struct ext_ic} in @file{machine.h}. This structure will be added
to each IC and can be used by the backend for private use.

@node asmpeephole
@subsection Peephole Optimizations on Assembly Output

Some optimizations are easier to do on the generated assembly code rather
than doing them before emitting code. Therefore it is possible to do
peephole optimizations on the emitted code before it is really
written to a file.

@code{EMIT_BUF_DEPTH} lines will be stored in a ring buffer and are available
to examination and modification by a function @code{emit_peephole()}. The
actual assembly output is stored in @code{emit_buffer}, the index of
the first line to be output in @code{emit_f} and the index of the last one
in @code{emit_l} (note that you have to calculate modulo @code{EMIT_BUF_DEPTH}
- it is a ring buffer).

The output may be modified in memory and the first line may be removed
using @code{remove_asm()}. If a modification took place, a non-zero value
has to be returned (0 otherwise). The following example code would combine
two consecutive additions to the same register:
@example
int emit_peephole(void)
@{
  int entries,i,r1,r2;
  long x,y;
  /* pointer to the lines in order of output */
  char *asmline[EMIT_BUF_DEPTH];
  i=emit_l;
  /* compute number of entries in ring buffer */
  if(emit_f==0)
    entries=i-emit_f+1;
  else
    entries=EMIT_BUF_DEPTH;
  /* the first line */
  asmline[0]=emit_buffer[i];
  if(entries>=2)@{
    /* we have at least two line sin the buffer */
    /* calculate the next line (modulo EMIT_BUF_DEPTH) */
    i--;
    if(i<0) i=EMIT_BUF_DEPTH-1;
    asmline[1]=emit_buffer[i];
    if(sscanf(asmline[0],"\tadd\tR%d,#%ld",&r1,&x)==2&&
       sscanf(asmline[1],"\tadd\tR%d,#%ld",&r2,&y)==2&&
       r1==r2)@{
      sprintf(asmline[1],"\tadd\tR%d,#%ld\n",r1,x+y);
      remove_asm();
      return 1;
    @}
  @}
  return 0;                                                                    
@}
@end example

Be very careful when doing such optimizations. Only perform optimizations
which are really legal. Especially assembly code often has side effects
like setting of flags.

Depending on command line flags inline assembly code may or may not be
passed through this peephole optimizer. By default, it will be done,
enabling optimizations between generated code and inline assembly.


@node markeffics
@subsection Marking of efficient ICs

If the backend sets @code{HAVE_EFF_ICS} in @file{machine.h}, it has to
provide a function @code{void mark_eff_ics(void)}. This function will be
called (possibly multiple times) by the frontend. The function has to set
or clear the bit @code{EFF_IC} in the member @code{flags} of every IC.

The flag should be set when the operation is in a context that suggests
it will translate to efficient machine code. The optimizer will transform
this IC less aggressively.

As this is all happens before register allocation, the decision is of a very
heuristic nature.

@subsection Function entry/exit Code

At entry and exit of function, there is usually some code to set up
the new environment for this function. For example, registers will
have to be saved/restored, a frame pointer may be set up and a stack
frame will be created. It is generally worthwile to optimize this 
entry/exit code. For example, if no registers need to be saved and no
local variables are used on the stack, it may not be necessary to
create a stack frame.

The exact possibilities for optimization depend on the architecture and the
ABI.


@subsection Multiplication/division with Constants

Many architectures do not provide instruction for multiplication,
division or modulo calculation. And on most architectures providing
such instructions they are rather slow. Therefore, it is recommended
to emit cheaper instructions, if possible.

Usually, this can only be done if one operand of the operation is a
constant. Multiplications may be replaced by a series of shift and
add instructions, for example. The simplest and most important cases
to replace are multiplication, division and modulo with a power of two.
Multiplication by x can be replaced by a left shift of log2(x),
unsigned division of x can be replaced by logical right shift of log2(x)
and unsigned modulo by x can be replaced by anding with x-1.

Note that
signed division and modulo can usually not be replaced that simple because
most division instructions give different results for some negative
values. An additional adjustment would be necessary to get correct results.
Whether this is still an improvement, depends on the architecture details.

The following function can be used to test whether a value is a power of
two:
@example
static long pof2(zumax x)
/*  Yields log2(x)+1 or 0. */
@{
  zumax p;int ln=1;
  p=ul2zum(1L);
  while(ln<=32&&zumleq(p,x))@{
    if(zumeqto(x,p)) return ln;
    ln++;p=zumadd(p,p);
  @}
  return 0;
@}
@end example

@subsection Block copying

There are many cases of copying of larger data. For the backend, those
will mostly be used in @code{PUSH} and @code{ASSIGN} ICs. It is very
important to implement those as efficient as possible.

Some things to consider:

@itemize @minus
@item When alignment is known, use word-copy instead of byte-copy.

@item Copy small blocks by a series of copy instructions.

@item For larger blocks, loading addresses in registers may help.

@item For large blocks, use a loop. Implement it efficiently and try to
unroll the loop a few times.

@item For very large blocks, calling a library function may be useful. While
this creates some overhead, the function can dynamically check the alignment
or perhaps even use special hardware, if available.

@item Set @code{INLINEMEMCOPY} to reasonable values. Set it to a very high
value if you implement very good block copying.

@end itemize


@subsection Optimized Library Functions

FIXME: To be written.

@subsection Instruction Scheduler

FIXME: To be written.


@section Hints for common Extensions

This section lists some common extensions to the C language which are
often very helpful when using a compiler in practice. Depending on the
kind of target system they may range from nobody-really-cares to
absolutely essential. For example, consider the ability to specify the section
within an object file a variable or function should be placed in. This is
rarely of any interest when targeting a Unix-like operating system. On
a stand-alone embedded system, however, it may be absolutely necessary.

Therefore, consider this list as a recommendation of ideas that might
be helpful.

@subsection Inline Assembly

The possibility to insert assembly code into C source is very handy in
many cases. It can be used in headers to implement specially optimized
versions of time-critical library routines or enable access to CPU
features which are not otherwise accessible by normal C constructs.

In general, almost all work is done by the frontend and only a few lines
have to be inserted in the backend to make it work. Therefore, it is
recommended to always support this important feature.

Everything that has to be done is to check a certain condition when code for
a @code{CALL} IC is generated. Instead of emitting a normal call instruction,
call the @code{emit_inline_asm()} function:
@example
if((p->q1.flags & (VAR|DREFOBJ)) == VAR &&
    p->q1.v->fi &&
    p->q1.v->fi->inline_asm)@{
        emit_inline_asm(f,p->q1.v->fi->inline_asm);
    @}else@{
        emit(f,"\tcall\t");
        emit_obj(f,&p->q1,t);
        emit(f,"\n");
    @}
@end example
Note that argument-passing, adjusting the stack after a @code{CALL} IC etc.
is not affected. Only the actual emitting of call code is changed in the
case of inline assembly.

@subsection -speed/-size

Often it is desired to generate code which runs as fast as possible
but sometimes small code is needed. The command line options
@option{-speed} and @option{-size} are provided for the user to specify
his intention.

These options already may change the intermediate code produced by the
frontend, but the backend should also respect these switches, if possible.
The variables @code{optspeed} and @code{optsize} can be queried to see
if these options were specified.

If e.g. @code{optspeed} was specified, the backend should choose faster
code-sequences, even if code-size is increased significantly. Vice-versa,
if @code{optsize} is specified, it should always choose the shorter code
if there is a trade-off between size and speed.

Typical cases for such tradeoffs are for example, block-copy (@code{ASSIGN}
and @code{PUSH}) ICs. Often it is possible to call a library function or
generate a simple short loop for small code, but an unrolled inlined loop
for fast code.

@node targetmacros
@subsection Target-specific Macros

A backend is able to provide macro definitions which are automatically
active. It is recommended to define macros which allow applications to
query the target architecture and the selected chip (if possible).
Also, it is recommended to provide internal macros for backend specific
attributes using the @code{__attr()} and @code{__vattr()} attributes.

The definition of these macros can be done in @code{init_cg()} (the
results of command line parsing are available at this point). There is
a variable
@example
char **target_macros;
@end example
which can be set to an array of pointers to strings which contain the
macro definitions. The array has to be terminated by a null pointer and
the syntax of the macro definitions is similar to the command line
option @option{-D}:
@example
static char *marray[] = @{
  "__TARGET_ARCH__",
  "__section(x)=__vattr(\"section(\"#x\")\")",
  0
@};
...
target_macros = marray;
@end example

@subsection stdarg.h

FIXME: To be written.


@subsection Section Specifiers

Especially for embedded systems it can be very important to be able to
place variables and functions in specific section to override default
placement. This can relatively easily be done using variable attributes
(@pxref{targetattributes}).


@node targetattributes
@subsection Target-specific Attributes

There are two ways of adding target-specific attributes to variables and
functions. A general way is the use of @code{__vattr()} which will add
the string argument to the @code{vattr} member of the corresponding
@code{struct Var}, separating it by a semi-colon. The backend can use
this information by parsing the string. The frontend will just build
the string, it will not interpret it. If a backend offers attributes
using the @code{__vattr()} mechanism, it is recommended to provide
target-specific macros (@pxref{targetmacros}) which expand to the
appropriate @code{__vattr()}-syntax. Only these macros should be
documented.

A second way to specify attributes is enabled by adding
@example
#define HAVE_TARGET_PRAGMAS 1
@end example
to @file{machine.h} and adding an array
@example
char *g_attr_name[];
@end example
to @file{machine.c}. This array should point to the strings used
for the attributes, terminated by a null-pointer, e.g.:
@example
char *g_attr_name[] = @{
  "__far",
  "__near",
  "__interrupt",
  0
@};
@end example
These attributes can be queried in the member
@example
unsigned long tattr;
@end example
of a @code{struct Var}. The first attribute is represented by bit 1, the
second by bit 2 and so on. Using this mechanism, the frontend will check for
redeclarations with different setting of attributes or multiple specification
of attributes. However, only boolean attributes are possible. If parameters
have to be specified, the @code{__vattr()}-mechanism has to be used.

@node targetpragmas
@subsection Target-specific @code{#pragma}s

FIXME: To be written.

@node exttypes
@subsection Target-specific extended Types

FIXME: To be written.

@node tgtprintval
@subsection Target-specific @code{printval}

FIXME: To be written.

@node debuginfo
@subsection Debug Information

Debug information which enables (source level) debugging of compiled
programs is an important feature to improve the user-friendliness of a
compiler. Depending on the object format and debugger used, the format
and capabilities of debug information can vary widely. Therefore, it is
the responsibility of each backend to generate debug information. However,
for common debug standards there will be modules which can be used by
the backends and will do most of the work. Currently there is one such
module for the DWARF2 debug standard.

The compiler frontend provides a variable @code{debug_info} which can
be queried to test whether debug information is desired. Also, the
functions @code{init_db()} and @code{cleanup_db()} are helpful.

Each @code{struct Var} contains the members @code{char *dfilename} and
@code{int dline} which specify the file and line number of the variable's
definition. Also, every IC contains the members @code{char *file} and
@code{int line} with the file name and line number this IC belongs to. Note
however, that there may be ICs with @code{file == 0} - not all ICs can
be assigned a certain code location. Also, ICs do not always have increasing
line numbers and line numbers may repeat. Not all debuggers may be able
to deal with this.

@subsubsection DWARF2

There is support for the DWARF2 debug standard which can be added to a backend
rather easily. The following additions are necessary:

@enumerate
@item Add the line
@example
#include "dwarf2.c"
@end example
to @file{machine.c}.
@item Add the following lines to @code{init_db()}:
@example
dwarf2_setup(sizetab[POINTER],
             ".byte",
             ".2byte",
             ".4byte",
             ".4byte",
             labprefix,
             idprefix,
             ".section");
dwarf2_print_comp_unit_header(f);
@end example
The arguments to @code{dwarf2_setup()} have the following meanings:
@enumerate
@item The size of an address on the target.
@item An assembler directive to create one byte of initialized storage.
@item An assembler directive to create two bytes of initialized storage
      (without any padding for alignment).
@item An assembler directive to create four bytes of initialized storage
      (without any padding for alignment).
@item An assembler directive to create initialized storage representing
      a target address (without any padding for alignment).
@item A prefix which is used for emitting numbered labels (or empty string).
@item A prefix which is used for emitting external identifiers
      (or empty string).
@item An assembler directive to switch to a new named section.
@end enumerate
@item Add the line
@example
dwarf2_cleanup(f);
@end example
to @code{cleanup_db()}.
@item Write the function
@example
static int dwarf2_regnumber(int r);
@end example
which
      returns the DWARF2 regnumber for a @command{vbcc} register number.
@item Write the function
@example
static zmax dwarf2_fboffset(struct Var *v);
@end example
      which returns the offset of variable @code{v} from the DWARF2
      frame-pointer.
@item Write the function
@example
static void dwarf2_print_frame_location(FILE *f,struct Var *v);
@end example
which prints a DWARF2 location of the frame pointer. It can use the
function
@example
void dwarf2_print_location(FILE *f,struct obj *o);
@end example
to output the location. For example, if the frame pointer is a simple
register, it might look like this:
@example
static void dwarf2_print_frame_location(FILE *f,struct Var *v)
@{
  struct obj o;
  o.flags=REG;
  o.reg=frame_pointer_register;
  o.val.vmax=l2zm(0L);
  o.v=0;
  dwarf2_print_location(f,&o);
@}
@end example
@item Before emitting code for an IC @code{p}, execute the code
@example
if(debug_info)
  dwarf2_line_info(f,p);
@end example
@item After emitting code for a function @code{v}, a new numbered label
      has to be emitted after the function code and the function
@example
void dwarf2_function(FILE *f,struct Var *v,int endlabel);
@end example
must be called.

@end enumerate

Note that the DWARF2 standard supports use of location lists which can be
used to describe a variable whose location changes during the program (e.g.
in a register for some time, then in memory and again in a register) as well
as a moving frame pointer (very useful if no separate frame pointer is used
but all local variables are accessed through a moving stack pointer).
Unfortunately, none of the debuggers I have tried so far could handle these
location lists. Therefore, the current DWARF2 module does not output
location lists, but future version will probably offer them as an option.

Without location lists, accessing local variables will only work with
a fixed frame pointer and no register variables. Even with these restrictions,
function parameters which are passed in registers will not be correctly
displayed during the function entry code.

@subsection Interrupt Handlers

Especially for embedded systems, support for writing interrupt handlers in
C is a common feature. Variable attributes (@pxref{targetattributes}) can
be used to mark functions which are used as interrupt handlers.

Typical changes which might be necessary for interrupt handlers are:
@itemize @minus
@item Using a different return instruction.
@item Saving all modified registers, including scratch-registers.
@item Creating an entry in the interrupt vector table.
@end itemize


@subsection Stack checking

Dynamic checking of the stack used (or possibly extending the stack size
if possible) is another useful feature. If the variable @code{stack_check}
is set, stack-checking code should be emitted, if possible. Every function
should call a library function (usually called @code{__stack_check}) and
pass the maximum size of stack used in this function as argument. This
obviously has to be done before allocating the stack-frame.

The library function is responsible to take into account its own
stack-frame.

@subsection Profiling

FIXME: To be written.

@node{vlas}
@subsection Variable-length Arrays

With the @code{-c99} option, vbcc supports variable-length arrays that
are allocated on the stack. The backend has to take several steps to
support this:

@table @code
@item vlas
When this variable is non-zero, the current function uses variable-length
arrays. The backend may take necessary steps to support this. For example,
if local variables are usually addressed via stackpointer, switching to a
separate framepointer may be necessary.

@item ALLOCVLA_INLINEASM
This define must contain inline code that is called when a vla is
allocated. It has to create additional room on the stack and return a
pointer to the beginning of the new space.

@item ALLOCVLA_REG
The register in which to pass the size to be allocated on the stack. 0 will
pass on the stack.

@item FREEVLA_INLINEASM
This define must contain inline code that is called when a vla is
freed. It has to restore the old stack pointer.

@item FREEVLA_REG
The register in which to pass the old stack pointer. 0 will
pass on the stack.

@item OLDSPVLA_INLINEASM
This define must contain inline code that is called before the first vla is
allocated. It has to return the current stack pointer before any vla has
been allocated.

@item FPVLA_REG
An additional register used in functions containing vlas. The backend can
specify a register (usually framepointer) that can not be used in functions
with vlas. Therefore, it is possible to use this register in other functions
(for example, if local variables are usually addressed directly through the
stackpointer).

@end table

@node{libcalls}
@subsection Library Calls

Sometimes operations may be very complicated to generate code for (e.g.
floating-point operations for machines without FPU, multiplication/division
on some architectures or big data types like @code{long long}). Those are
usually implemented by calling library functions.

vbcc can be told to generate calls to library functions for certain ICs. When
defining @code{HAVE_LIBCALLS}, the backend must provide the function
@code{char *use_libcall(<code>,<typf>,<typf2>)}. This function gets
called with the elements @code{code}, @code{typf} and @code{typf2} of an IC.
If @code{use_libcall} returns a name, this library function will be called
instead of the IC. Otherwise, 0 must be returned.

All library functions have to be declared in @code{init_cg()} with
@code{declare_builtin()}, supporting the following arguments:

@table @code

@item name
The name of the library function. Usually, a reserved identifier should be
chosen (e.g. starting with @code{__}).

@item ztyp
The return type of the function (only integral and float types are supported).

@item q1typ
The type of the first parameter (only integral and float types are supported).

@item q1reg
The register to pass the first argument in (0 passes via stack).

@item q2typ
The type of the second parameter (only integral and float types are supported).
For functions with a single parameter, use 0.

@item q2reg
The register to pass the second argument in (0 passes via stack).

@item nosidefx
If this is non-zero, the function will be declared to have no side-effects
and allow some more optimizations.

@item inline_asm
Inline assembly can be specified for the function.

@end table

Note that not all ICs can be converted to library calls.


@section Changes from 0.7 Interface

The backend interface has changed in several ways since @command{vbcc} 0.7.
The following list mentions most(all?) differences between the old
and new interfaces (not including new optional features which do not have
to be used):

@itemize @minus
@item There are more types (@code{LLONG, LDOUBLE, MAXINT}). Therefore
      the @code{align[]} and @code{sizetab[]} arrays have dimension
      @code{MAX_TYPES+1} rather than 16.
@item The representation and access of @code{t_min[]} and @code{t_max[]}
      has been changed.
@item @code{zmax} replaces @code{zlong} as largest integer target
      type. @code{zlong} is only used when actually referring to a
      @code{long} on the target. Also, the macros for target arithmetic
      are available for @code{zmax/zumax} instead of @code{zlong/zulong}.
@item @code{PUSH} ICs contain a second size (actual stack-adjustment).
@item The second argument of @code{SHIFT} ICs has an own type.
@item @code{DREFOBJ} objects contain the type of the dereferenced pointer
      (only meaningful if there are different pointer types).
@item The new @code{CONVERT} IC replaces the series of old ICs
      (@code{CONVINT} etc.).
@item @code{emit()}-functions have to be used to generate output rather
      than @code{fprintf()}.
@item The functions @code{init_db()} and @code{cleanup_db()} have to be
      provided (they do not have do to anything).
@item A new array @code{reg_prio[]} is needed and controls the order
      in which registers are allocated.
@item The parameters of @code{must_convert()} have changed.
@item Static functions must not use identifiers, but have to use numbered
      labels.

@end itemize

Volker Barthelmann                                      vb@@compilers.de

